mpires are often imagined as vast swathes of land shaded on a map, but their true significance reaches far beyond geography. As the sociologist Karen Barkey observes, “Empire denotes differentiation, inequality and hierarchy,” reminding us that imperial power is not merely about expansion but about structuring societies—deciding who rules, who benefits and who is marginalised. Historians have long debated how best to measure the “greatness” of an empire—whether by land area, population, longevity, administrative sophistication, or cultural influence. Each measure reveals a different facet of how empires shaped human history. The historian Fernand Braudel, associated with the Annales School, adds yet another dimension by urging us to look beyond events and rulers to the deeper structures of history—geography, environment and long-term economic…

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